{"id":23274,"date":"2021-06-07T16:57:15","date_gmt":"2021-06-07T14:57:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.scribbr.nl\/?p=23274\/"},"modified":"2023-05-31T13:32:48","modified_gmt":"2023-05-31T11:32:48","slug":"research-design","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.scribbr.com\/methodology\/research-design\/","title":{"rendered":"What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide &#038; Examples"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>A <strong>research design<\/strong> is a strategy for answering your<span>\u00a0<\/span><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-process//research-questions///">research question<\/a><span>\u00a0using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Your overall <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-process//research-objectives///">research objectives<\/a> and approach<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Whether you&#8217;ll rely on <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//primary-research///">primary research<\/a> or <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//secondary-research///">secondary research<\/a><\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Your <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//sampling-methods///">sampling methods<\/a> or criteria for selecting subjects<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Your <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//data-collection///">data collection methods<\/a><\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">The procedures you\u2019ll follow to collect data<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Your data analysis methods<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-process//research-objectives///">research objectives<\/a> and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.<\/p>\n<p>You might have to write up a research design as a standalone assignment, or it might be part of a larger<span>\u00a0<\/span><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-process//research-proposal///">research proposal<\/a> or other project. In either case, you should carefully consider which methods are most appropriate and feasible for answering your question.<br \/>\n<!--more--><\/p>\n<div class=\"scribbrTabs\">\n<ul class=\"scribbrTabs-menu\">\n<li class=\"current\"><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"#\">Introduction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"#\">Step 1<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"#\">Step 2<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"#\">Step 3<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"#\">Step 4<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"#\">Step 5<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"#\">Step 6<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"scribbrTabs-tabs\">\n<div class=\"scribbrTabs-content\">\n<div class=\"card youtubeContainer\"><iframe src=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.youtube.com//embed//SwRIhMstINg?rel=0\%22 frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scribbrTabs-content\">\n<div class=\"card youtubeContainer\"><iframe src=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.youtube.com//embed//3Dd8P6IYzdE?rel=0\%22 frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scribbrTabs-content\">\n<div class=\"card youtubeContainer\"><iframe src=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.youtube.com//embed//ZNo-M1ldPZ8?rel=0\%22 frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scribbrTabs-content\">\n<div class=\"card youtubeContainer\"><iframe src=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.youtube.com//embed//huVsdOZkeTc?rel=0\%22 frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scribbrTabs-content\">\n<div class=\"card youtubeContainer\"><iframe src=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.youtube.com//embed//q17s84ADGfA?rel=0\%22 frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scribbrTabs-content\">\n<div class=\"card youtubeContainer\"><iframe src=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.youtube.com//embed//Vwtxlgudc4s?rel=0\%22 frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scribbrTabs-content\">\n<div class=\"card youtubeContainer\"><iframe src=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.youtube.com//embed//rNulPTwLFMQ?rel=0\%22 frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2><strong>Step 1: Consider your aims and approach<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"kb-textbox border-left green\"><figcaption>Research question example<\/figcaption>How can teachers adapt their lessons for effective remote learning?<\/figure>\n<p>There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities\u2014start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.<\/p>\n<p>The first choice you need to make is whether you\u2019ll take a <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//qualitative-quantitative-research///"><strong>qualitative or quantitative <\/strong><\/a>approach.<\/p>\n<table class=\"kb-table responsive-inline full-width auto-th\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\" width=\"50%\">Qualitative approach<\/th>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\">Quantitative approach<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Understand subjective experiences, beliefs, and concepts<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Gain in-depth knowledge of a specific context or culture<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Explore under-researched problems and generate new ideas<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Measure different <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//types-of-variables///">types of variables<\/a> and describe frequencies, averages, and correlations<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\"><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//hypothesis-testing///">Test hypotheses<\/a> about relationships between variables<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Test the effectiveness of a new treatment, program or product<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//qualitative-research///">Qualitative research designs<\/a> tend to be more flexible and <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//inductive-reasoning///">inductive<\/a>, allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"kb-textbox border-left green\"><figcaption>Qualitative research example<\/figcaption>If you want to generate new ideas for online teaching strategies, a qualitative approach would make the most sense. You can use this type of research to explore exactly what teachers and students struggle with in remote classes.<\/figure>\n<p><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//quantitative-research///">Quantitative research designs<\/a> tend to be more fixed and <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//inductive-deductive-reasoning///">deductive<\/a>, with <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//types-of-variables///">variables<\/a> and <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.nl//methodology//hypotheses///">hypotheses<\/a> clearly defined in advance of data collection.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"kb-textbox border-left green\"><figcaption>Quantitative research example<\/figcaption>If you want to test the effectiveness of an online teaching method, a quantitative approach is most suitable. You can use this type of research to measure learning outcomes like grades and test scores.<\/figure>\n<p>It\u2019s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you&#8217;re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.<\/p>\n<h3>Practical and ethical considerations when designing research<\/h3>\n<p>As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//research-ethics///">research ethics<\/a>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//?cat_ID=34372\%22>statistical analysis<\/a> or interview techniques)?<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Will you need <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//research-ethics///">ethical approval<\/a>?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Step 2: Choose a type of research design<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.<\/p>\n<h3>Types of quantitative research designs<\/h3>\n<p>Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//experimental-design///" style=\"background-color: #ffffff; font-size: 1rem;\"><strong>Experimental<\/strong><\/a> and<span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//quasi-experimental-design///">quasi-experimental<\/a> <\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships<\/span><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//descriptive-research///" style=\"background-color: #ffffff; font-size: 1rem;\"><strong><\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//descriptive-research///" style=\"background-color: #ffffff; font-size: 1rem;\"><strong>Descriptive<\/strong><\/a><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"> and <\/span><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//correlational-research///" style=\"background-color: #ffffff; font-size: 1rem;\"><strong>correlational<\/strong><\/a><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"> designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<table class=\"kb-table responsive-inline full-width alternate\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Type of design<\/th>\n<th>Purpose and characteristics<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Experimental<\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Used to test <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//correlation-vs-causation///">causal<\/a> relationships<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//commonly-confused-words//its-vs-its///">its<\/a> effect on a <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//independent-and-dependent-variables//#dependent\">dependent variable<\/a><\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Subjects are randomly assigned to groups<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Usually conducted in a controlled environment (e.g., a lab)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Quasi-experimental<\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Used to test causal relationships<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Similar to experimental design, but without <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//random-assignment///">random assignment<\/a><\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Often involves comparing the outcomes of pre-existing groups<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Often conducted in a natural environment (higher <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//ecological-validity///">ecological validity<\/a>)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Correlational<\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Used to test whether (and how strongly) variables are related<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Variables are measured without influencing them<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Descriptive<\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Used to describe characteristics, averages, trends, etc<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Variables are measured without influencing them<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can\u2019t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//correlation-vs-causation///">correlation doesn&#8217;t imply causation<\/a>).<\/p>\n<figure class=\"kb-textbox border-left green\"><figcaption>Correlational design example<\/figcaption>You could use a correlational design to find out if the rise in online teaching in the past year correlates with any change in test scores.<\/p>\n<p>But this design can\u2019t confirm a causal relationship between the two variables. Any change in test scores could have been influenced by many other variables, such as increased stress and health issues among students and teachers.<\/figure>\n<p>Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They\u2019re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"kb-textbox border-left green\"><figcaption>Experimental design example<\/figcaption>In an experimental design, you could gather a sample of students and then randomly assign half of them to be taught online and the other half to be taught in person, while controlling all other relevant variables.<\/p>\n<p>By comparing their outcomes in test scores, you can be more confident that it was the method of teaching (and not other variables) that caused any change in scores.<\/figure>\n<h3>Types of qualitative research designs<\/h3>\n<p>Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.<\/p>\n<p>The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.<\/p>\n<table class=\"kb-table responsive-inline full-width alternate\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Type of design<\/th>\n<th>Purpose and characteristics<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//case-study///">Case study<\/a><\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Detailed study of a specific subject (e.g., a place, event, organization, etc).<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Data can be collected using a variety of sources and methods.<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Focuses on gaining a holistic understanding of the case.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//ethnography///">Ethnography<\/a><\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Detailed study of the culture of a specific community or group.<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Data is collected by extended immersion and close observation.<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Focuses on describing and interpreting beliefs, conventions, social dynamics, etc.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Grounded theory<\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Aims to develop a theory inductively by systematically analyzing qualitative data.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Phenomenology<\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Aims to understand a phenomenon or event by describing participants\u2019 lived experiences.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Step 3: Identify your population and sampling method<\/h2>\n<p>Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you\u2019ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.<\/p>\n<p>In research, a<strong><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//population-vs-sample///"> population<\/a><\/strong> is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a <strong>sample<\/strong> is the smaller group of individuals you\u2019ll actually collect data from.<\/p>\n<h3>Defining the population<\/h3>\n<p>A population can be made up of anything you want to study\u2014plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.<\/p>\n<p>For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?<\/p>\n<p>The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"kb-textbox border-left green\"><figcaption>Population example<\/figcaption>If you\u2019re studying the effectiveness of online teaching in the US, it would be very difficult to get a sample that\u2019s representative of all high school students in the country.<\/p>\n<p>To make the research more manageable, and to draw more precise conclusions, you could focus on a narrower population\u2014for example, 9th-grade students in low-income areas of New York.<\/figure>\n<h3>Sampling methods<\/h3>\n<p>Even with a narrowly defined population, it\u2019s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you\u2019ll collect data from a sample.<\/p>\n<p>To select a sample, there are two main approaches: <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//probability-sampling///">probability sampling<\/a> and <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//non-probability-sampling///">non-probability sampling<\/a>. The<a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//sampling-methods///"> sampling method<\/a> you use affects how confidently you can <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-bias//generalizability///">generalize<\/a> your results to the population as a whole.<\/p>\n<table class=\"kb-table responsive-inline full-width auto-th\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\" width=\"50%\">Probability sampling<\/th>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\">Non-probability sampling<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Sample is selected using random methods<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Mainly used in quantitative research<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Allows you to make strong statistical inferences about the population<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Sample selected in a non-random way<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Used in both qualitative and quantitative research<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Easier to achieve, but more risk of <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//faq-category//research-bias///">research bias<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it\u2019s often difficult to achieve unless you\u2019re dealing with a very small and accessible population.<\/p>\n<p>For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it\u2019s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that\u2019s as representative as possible of the population.<\/p>\n<h3>Case selection in qualitative research<\/h3>\n<p>In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.<\/p>\n<p>For example, in an <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//ethnography///">ethnography<\/a> or a <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//case-study///">case study<\/a>, your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.<\/p>\n<p>In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-process//research-questions///">research question<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.<\/p>\n<h2>Step 4: Choose your data collection methods<\/h2>\n<p>Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.<\/p>\n<p>You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.<\/p>\n<h3>Survey methods<\/h3>\n<p><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//survey-research///">Surveys<\/a> allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//questionnaire///">questionnaires<\/a> and <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//interviews-research///">interviews<\/a>.<\/p>\n<table class=\"kb-table responsive-inline full-width auto-th\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\" width=\"50%\">Questionnaires<\/th>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\">Interviews<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">More common in quantitative research<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">May be distributed online, by phone, by mail or in person<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Usually offer closed questions with limited options<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Consistent data can be collected from many people<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">More common in qualitative research<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Conducted by researcher in person, by phone or online<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Usually allow participants to answer in their own words<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Ideas can be explored in-depth with a smaller group (e.g., <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//focus-group///">focus group<\/a>)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Observation methods<\/h3>\n<p><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//observational-study///">Observational studies<\/a> allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.<\/p>\n<p>Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.<\/p>\n<table class=\"kb-table responsive-inline full-width auto-th\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\" width=\"50%\">Quantitative observation<\/th>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\"><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//qualitative-observation///">Qualitative observation<\/a><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Systematically counting or measuring<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Categories and criteria determined in advance<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Taking detailed notes and writing rich descriptions<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">All relevant observations can be recorded<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Other methods of data collection<\/h3>\n<p>There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.<\/p>\n<table class=\"kb-table responsive-inline full-width alternate\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Field<\/th>\n<th>Examples of data collection methods<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Media &amp; communication<\/th>\n<td>Collecting a sample of texts (e.g., speeches, articles, or social media posts) for data on cultural norms and narratives<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Psychology<\/th>\n<td>Using technologies like neuroimaging, eye-tracking, or computer-based tasks to collect data on things like attention, emotional response, or reaction time<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Education<\/th>\n<td>Using tests or assignments to collect data on knowledge and skills<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Physical sciences<\/th>\n<td>Using scientific instruments to collect data on things like weight, blood pressure, or chemical composition<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>If you\u2019re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.<\/p>\n<h3>Secondary data<\/h3>\n<p>If you don\u2019t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you\u2019re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected\u2014for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.<\/p>\n<p>With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren\u2019t addressed by the original study.<\/p>\n<p>Using secondary data can expand the <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//frequently-asked-questions//scope-of-research///">scope<\/a> of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//commonly-confused-words//then-vs-than///">than<\/a> you could collect yourself.<\/p>\n<p>However, it also means you don\u2019t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.<\/p>\n<h2>Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures<\/h2>\n<p>As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you\u2019ll use these methods to collect data that\u2019s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.<\/p>\n<p>Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.<\/p>\n<h3>Operationalization<\/h3>\n<p>Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you\u2019ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"//?p=161967\%22>Operationalization<\/a> means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.<\/p>\n<p>If you\u2019re using <strong>observations<\/strong>, which events or actions will you count?<\/p>\n<figure class=\"kb-textbox border-left green\"><figcaption>Example<\/figcaption>To measure student participation in an online course, you could record the number of times students ask and answer questions.<\/figure>\n<p>If you\u2019re using <strong>surveys<\/strong>, which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?<\/p>\n<figure class=\"kb-textbox border-left green\"><figcaption>Example<\/figcaption>To measure teachers\u2019 satisfaction with online learning tools, you could create a questionnaire with a 5-point rating scale.<\/figure>\n<p>You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you\u2019re interested in\u2014for example, questionnaires or inventories whose <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//reliability-vs-validity///">reliability and validity<\/a> has already been established.<\/p>\n<h3>Reliability and validity<\/h3>\n<p><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//types-of-reliability///">Reliability<\/a> means your results can be consistently reproduced, while <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//types-of-validity///">validity<\/a> means that you\u2019re actually measuring the concept you\u2019re interested in.<\/p>\n<table class=\"kb-table responsive-inline full-widt auto-th\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\" width=\"50%\">Reliability<\/th>\n<th style=\"background-color: #f8f7f5; text-align: center;\">Validity<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Does your measure capture the same concept consistently over time?<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Does it produce the same results in different contexts?<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Do all questions measure the exact same concept?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Do your measurement materials test all aspects of the concept? (<a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//content-validity///">content validity<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Does it correlate with different measures of the same concept? (<a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//criterion-validity///">criterion validity<\/a>)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.<\/p>\n<p>If you\u2019re developing a new <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//questionnaire///">questionnaire<\/a> or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.<\/p>\n<h3>Sampling procedures<\/h3>\n<p>As well as choosing an appropriate <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//sampling-methods///">sampling method<\/a>, you need a concrete plan for how you\u2019ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.<\/p>\n<p>That means making decisions about things like:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">What <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//inclusion-exclusion-criteria///">inclusion and exclusion criteria<\/a> will you use to identify eligible participants?<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">How will you contact your sample\u2014by mail, online, by phone, or in person?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>If you\u2019re using a <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//probability-sampling///">probability sampling method<\/a>, it\u2019s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?<\/p>\n<p>If you\u2019re using a <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//non-probability-sampling///">non-probability method<\/a>, how will you avoid <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-bias//sampling-bias///">research bias<\/a> and ensure a representative sample?<\/p>\n<h3>Data management<\/h3>\n<p>It\u2019s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.<\/p>\n<p>Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it\u2019s backed up regularly.<\/p>\n<p>Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//reproducibility-repeatability-replicability///">replicability<\/a>).<\/p>\n<h2>Step 6: Decide on your data analysis strategies<\/h2>\n<p>On its own, raw data can\u2019t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you\u2019ll analyze the data.<\/p>\n<h3>Quantitative data analysis<\/h3>\n<p>In quantitative research, you\u2019ll most likely use some form of <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"//?cat_ID=34372\%22>statistical analysis<\/a>. With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.<\/p>\n<p>Using <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//descriptive-statistics///">descriptive statistics<\/a>, you can summarize your sample data in terms of:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">The <strong>distribution<\/strong> of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">The <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//central-tendency///"><strong>central tendency <\/strong><\/a>of the data (e.g., the <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//mean///">mean<\/a> to describe the average score)<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">The <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//variability///"><strong>variability<\/strong> <\/a>of the data (e.g., the <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//standard-deviation///">standard deviation<\/a> to describe how spread out the scores are)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The specific calculations you can do depend on the<a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//levels-of-measurement///"> level of measurement<\/a> of your variables.<\/p>\n<p>Using <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//inferential-statistics///">inferential statistics<\/a>, you can:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\"><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//hypothesis-testing///">Test hypotheses<\/a> about a relationship between variables.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//simple-linear-regression///">Regression<\/a> and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as<a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//t-test///"><em> t<\/em> tests<\/a> and<a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//one-way-anova///"> ANOVAs<\/a>) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.<\/p>\n<p>Your <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//statistical-tests///">choice of statistical test<\/a> depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you\u2019re dealing with and the distribution of your data.<\/p>\n<h3>Qualitative data analysis<\/h3>\n<p>In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you\u2019ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.<\/p>\n<p>Two of the most common approaches to doing this are <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//thematic-analysis///">thematic analysis<\/a> and <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//discourse-analysis///">discourse analysis<\/a>.<\/p>\n<table class=\"kb-table responsive-inline full-width\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Approach<\/th>\n<th>Characteristics<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Thematic analysis<\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Focuses on the content of the data<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Involves coding and organizing the data to identify key themes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Discourse analysis<\/th>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Focuses on putting the data in context<\/li>\n<li aria-level=\"1\">Involves analyzing different levels of communication (language, structure, tone, etc)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"other\">Other interesting articles<\/h2>\n<p>If you want to know more about the <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//category//research-process///">research process<\/a>, <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//category//methodology///">methodology<\/a>, <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//faq-category//research-bias///">research bias<\/a>, or <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//category//statistics///">statistics<\/a>, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.<\/p>\n<div class=\"container\">\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"col-md\" style=\"background-color: #e8f2fc; padding: 1.27rem 1.56rem; line-height: 1.8; border-radius: .5rem; margin-right: 0.5rem; margin-top: 0.5rem;\">\n<p><strong><em class=\"fa fa-user-circle\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/em>Methodology<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"padding: 5px;\">\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//sampling-methods///">Sampling methods<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//simple-random-sampling///">Simple random sampling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//stratified-sampling///">Stratified sampling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//cluster-sampling///">Cluster sampling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//likert-scale///">Likert scales<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//reproducibility-repeatability-replicability///">Reproducibility<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"col-md\" style=\"background-color: #e8f2fc; padding: 1.27rem 1.56rem; line-height: 1.8; border-radius: .5rem; margin-right: 0.5rem; margin-top: 0.5rem;\">\n<p><strong><em class=\"fa fa-book\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/em>\u00a0Statistics<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"padding: 5px;\">\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//null-and-alternative-hypotheses///">Null hypothesis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//statistical-power///">Statistical power<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//probability-distributions///">Probability distribution<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//effect-size///">Effect size<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//kurtosis///">Kurtosis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//poisson-distribution///">Poisson distribution<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"col-md\" style=\"background-color: #e8f2fc; padding: 1.27rem 1.56rem; line-height: 1.8; border-radius: .5rem; margin-right: 0.5rem; margin-top: 0.5rem;\">\n<p><strong><em class=\"fa fa-globe\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/em> Research bias<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"padding: 5px;\">\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-bias//optimism-bias///">Optimism bias<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-bias//cognitive-bias///">Cognitive bias<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-bias//implicit-bias///">Implicit bias<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-bias//hawthorne-effect///">Hawthorne effect<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-bias//anchoring-bias///">Anchoring bias<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-bias//explicit-bias///">Explicit bias<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n    <h2>Frequently asked questions about research design<\/h2>\n<dl class=\"faq-list faq-list--arrows w-100 my-5\" itemscope itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/FAQPage\">\n            <div itemscope itemprop=\"mainEntity\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Question\">\n            <dt id=\"what-is-a-research-design\" class=\"faq-list__title\">\n                <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//frequently-asked-questions//what-is-a-research-design///" class=\"faq-list__link qa-faq-anchor\">\n                    <span itemprop=\"name\">\n                        What is a research design?\n                    <\/span>\n                <\/a>\n            <\/dt>\n            <dd id=\"what-is-a-research-design-answer\" class=\"faq-list__answer qa-faq-answer kb-article-styles\" itemscope itemprop=\"acceptedAnswer\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Answer\">\n                <div itemprop=\"text\">\n                                        <p>A <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//research-design///">research design<\/a> is a strategy for answering your<span>\u00a0<\/span><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-process//research-questions///">research question<\/a>. It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.<\/p>\n\n                <\/div>\n            <\/dd>\n        <\/div>\n            <div itemscope itemprop=\"mainEntity\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Question\">\n            <dt id=\"why-is-research-design-important\" class=\"faq-list__title\">\n                <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//frequently-asked-questions//why-is-research-design-important///" class=\"faq-list__link qa-faq-anchor\">\n                    <span itemprop=\"name\">\n                        Why is research design important?\n                    <\/span>\n                <\/a>\n            <\/dt>\n            <dd id=\"why-is-research-design-important-answer\" class=\"faq-list__answer qa-faq-answer kb-article-styles\" itemscope itemprop=\"acceptedAnswer\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Answer\">\n                <div itemprop=\"text\">\n                                        <p>A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//working-with-sources//credible-sources///">credible sources<\/a>. This allows you to draw <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//internal-vs-external-validity///">valid<\/a>, trustworthy conclusions.<\/p>\n\n                <\/div>\n            <\/dd>\n        <\/div>\n            <div itemscope itemprop=\"mainEntity\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Question\">\n            <dt id=\"what-are-the-main-types-of-research-design\" class=\"faq-list__title\">\n                <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//frequently-asked-questions//what-are-the-main-types-of-research-design///" class=\"faq-list__link qa-faq-anchor\">\n                    <span itemprop=\"name\">\n                        What are the main types of research design?\n                    <\/span>\n                <\/a>\n            <\/dt>\n            <dd id=\"what-are-the-main-types-of-research-design-answer\" class=\"faq-list__answer qa-faq-answer kb-article-styles\" itemscope itemprop=\"acceptedAnswer\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Answer\">\n                <div itemprop=\"text\">\n                                        <p><strong><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//quantitative-research///">Quantitative<\/a> <\/strong>research designs can be divided into two main categories:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//correlational-research///"><strong>Correlational<\/strong><\/a> and <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//descriptive-research///"><strong>descriptive<\/strong><\/a> designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.<\/li>\n<li><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//experimental-design///"><strong>Experimental<\/strong> <\/a>and<a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//quasi-experimental-design///"><strong> quasi-experimental<\/strong><\/a> designs are used to test <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//correlation-vs-causation///">causal relationships<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//qualitative-research///"><strong>Qualitative<\/strong> <\/a>research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//case-study///">case study<\/a>, <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//ethnography///">ethnography<\/a>, and grounded theory designs.<\/p>\n\n                <\/div>\n            <\/dd>\n        <\/div>\n            <div itemscope itemprop=\"mainEntity\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Question\">\n            <dt id=\"what-do-i-need-to-include-in-my-research-design\" class=\"faq-list__title\">\n                <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//frequently-asked-questions//what-do-i-need-to-include-in-my-research-design///" class=\"faq-list__link qa-faq-anchor\">\n                    <span itemprop=\"name\">\n                        What do I need to include in my research design?\n                    <\/span>\n                <\/a>\n            <\/dt>\n            <dd id=\"what-do-i-need-to-include-in-my-research-design-answer\" class=\"faq-list__answer qa-faq-answer kb-article-styles\" itemscope itemprop=\"acceptedAnswer\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Answer\">\n                <div itemprop=\"text\">\n                                        <p>The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Your <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-process//research-questions///">research questions<\/a> and\/or <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//hypothesis///">hypotheses<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Your overall approach (e.g., <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//qualitative-quantitative-research///">qualitative or quantitative<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>The type of design you&#8217;re using (e.g., a <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//survey-research///">survey<\/a>, <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//experimental-design///">experiment<\/a>, or <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//case-study///">case study<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Your<a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//sampling-methods///"> sampling methods<\/a> or criteria for selecting subjects<\/li>\n<li>Your <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//data-collection///">data collection<\/a> methods (e.g., <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//questionnaire///">questionnaires<\/a>, observations)<\/li>\n<li>Your data collection procedures (e.g., <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//dissertation//operationalization///">operationalization<\/a>, timing and data management)<\/li>\n<li>Your data analysis methods (e.g., <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//statistical-tests///">statistical tests\u00a0<\/a>or <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//thematic-analysis///">thematic analysis<\/a>)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n                <\/div>\n            <\/dd>\n        <\/div>\n            <div itemscope itemprop=\"mainEntity\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Question\">\n            <dt id=\"what-is-sampling\" class=\"faq-list__title\">\n                <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//frequently-asked-questions//what-is-sampling///" class=\"faq-list__link qa-faq-anchor\">\n                    <span itemprop=\"name\">\n                        What is sampling?\n                    <\/span>\n                <\/a>\n            <\/dt>\n            <dd id=\"what-is-sampling-answer\" class=\"faq-list__answer qa-faq-answer kb-article-styles\" itemscope itemprop=\"acceptedAnswer\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Answer\">\n                <div itemprop=\"text\">\n                                        <p>A <strong>sample<\/strong> is a subset of individuals from a larger <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//population-vs-sample///">population<\/a>.<a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//sampling-methods///"><strong> Sampling<\/strong><\/a> means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//survey-research///">survey<\/a> a sample of 100 students.<\/p>\n<p>In statistics, sampling allows you to <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//statistics//hypothesis-testing///">test a hypothesis<\/a> about the characteristics of a population.<\/p>\n\n                <\/div>\n            <\/dd>\n        <\/div>\n            <div itemscope itemprop=\"mainEntity\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Question\">\n            <dt id=\"what-is-operationalization\" class=\"faq-list__title\">\n                <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//frequently-asked-questions//what-is-operationalization///" class=\"faq-list__link qa-faq-anchor\">\n                    <span itemprop=\"name\">\n                        What is operationalization?\n                    <\/span>\n                <\/a>\n            <\/dt>\n            <dd id=\"what-is-operationalization-answer\" class=\"faq-list__answer qa-faq-answer kb-article-styles\" itemscope itemprop=\"acceptedAnswer\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Answer\">\n                <div itemprop=\"text\">\n                                        <p><a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//dissertation//operationalization///">Operationalization<\/a> means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.<\/p>\n<p>For example, the concept of social anxiety isn&#8217;t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.<\/p>\n<p>Before <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//data-collection///">collecting data<\/a>, it&#8217;s important to consider how you will operationalize the <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//types-of-variables///">variables<\/a> that you want to measure.<\/p>\n\n                <\/div>\n            <\/dd>\n        <\/div>\n            <div itemscope itemprop=\"mainEntity\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Question\">\n            <dt id=\"research-project\" class=\"faq-list__title\">\n                <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//frequently-asked-questions//research-project///" class=\"faq-list__link qa-faq-anchor\">\n                    <span itemprop=\"name\">\n                        What is a research project?\n                    <\/span>\n                <\/a>\n            <\/dt>\n            <dd id=\"research-project-answer\" class=\"faq-list__answer qa-faq-answer kb-article-styles\" itemscope itemprop=\"acceptedAnswer\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/Answer\">\n                <div itemprop=\"text\">\n                                        <p>A <strong>research project<\/strong> is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//research-process//research-questions///">research question<\/a>. Research projects can take many forms, such as <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//qualitative-quantitative-research///">qualitative or quantitative<\/a>, <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//descriptive-research///">descriptive<\/a>, <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//longitudinal-study///">longitudinal<\/a>, <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//experimental-design///">experimental<\/a>, or <a href=https://www.scribbr.com/"https:////www.scribbr.com//methodology//correlational-research///">correlational<\/a>. What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.<\/p>\n\n                <\/div>\n            <\/dd>\n        <\/div>\n    <\/dl>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A research design is a strategy for answering your\u00a0research question\u00a0using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach Whether you&#8217;ll rely on primary research or secondary research Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects Your data collection methods The procedures you\u2019ll follow to collect data Your [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":83,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_relevanssi_hide_post":"","_relevanssi_hide_content":"","_relevanssi_pin_for_all":"","_relevanssi_pin_keywords":"","_relevanssi_unpin_keywords":"","_relevanssi_related_keywords":"","_relevanssi_related_include_ids":"","_relevanssi_related_exclude_ids":"","_relevanssi_related_no_append":"","_relevanssi_related_not_related":"","_relevanssi_related_posts":"","_relevanssi_noindex_reason":""},"categories":[23650],"tags":[],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<title>What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide &amp; Examples<\/title>\n<!-- Added by HTTrack --><meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /><!-- /Added by HTTrack -->
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